what is the term used to describe the relation of the wrist to the elbow

Joint betwixt the upper and lower parts of the arm

Elbow
Anatomy of the elbow (left).
Details
Identifiers
Latin	articulatio cubiti
MeSH	D004550
TA98	A01.1.00.023
TA2	145
FMA	24901
Anatomical terminology [edit on Wikidata]

The elbow is the region betwixt the upper and lower parts of the arm that surrounds the elbow articulation.^[1] The elbow includes prominent landmarks such equally the olecranon, the elbow pit, and the lateral and the medial epicondyles of the humerus. The elbow joint is a swivel articulation between the upper arm and the forearm;^[two] more than specifically between the humerus in the upper arm and the radius and ulna in the forearm which allows the forearm and hand to be moved towards and away from the body.^{[3] [4]}

The term elbow is specifically used for humans and other primates, and in other vertebrates forelimb plus joint is used.^[ane]

The proper noun for the elbow in Latin is cubitus, and and then the word cubital is used in some elbow-related terms, as in cubital nodes for case.

Construction [edit]

Joint [edit]

The elbow joint has iii different portions surrounded past a common joint sheathing. These are joints betwixt the iii bones of the elbow, the humerus of the upper arm, and the radius and the ulna of the forearm.

Articulation	From	To	Description
Humeroulnar joint	trochlear notch of the ulna	trochlea of humerus	Is a simple hinge-articulation, and allows for movements of flexion and extension only.
Humeroradial joint	head of the radius	capitulum of the humerus	Is a ball-and-socket joint.
Proximal radioulnar articulation	head of the radius	radial notch of the ulna	In any position of flexion or extension, the radius, conveying the mitt with it, can be rotated in it. This movement includes pronation and supination.

When in anatomical position at that place are four main bony landmarks of the elbow. At the lower part of the humerus are the medial and lateral epicondyles, on the side closest to the body (medial) and on the side away from the trunk (lateral) surfaces. The 3rd landmark is the olecranon establish at the head of the ulna. These lie on a horizontal line called the Hueter line. When the elbow is flexed, they form a triangle called the Hueter triangle, which resembles an equilateral triangle.^[five]

At the surface of the humerus where it faces the joint is the trochlea. In most people, the groove running beyond the trochlea is vertical on the anterior side but it spirals off on the posterior side. This results in the forearm beingness aligned to the upper arm during flexion, but forming an bending to the upper arm during extension — an angle known as the carrying angle.^[6]

The superior radioulnar joint shares the joint capsule with the elbow joint but plays no functional role at the elbow.^[7]

Joint capsule [edit]

Capsule of elbow-articulation (distended). Anterior and posterior aspects.

The elbow joint and the superior radioulnar joint are enclosed by a single fibrous capsule. The capsule is strengthened by ligaments at the sides but is relatively weak in front and behind.^[8]

On the anterior side, the sheathing consists mainly of longitudinal fibres. Even so, some bundles among these fibers run obliquely or transversely, thickening and strengthening the capsule. These bundles are referred to every bit the capsular ligament. Deep fibres of the brachialis muscle insert anteriorly into the sheathing and act to pull it and the underlying membrane during flexion in order to prevent them from beingness pinched.^[8]

On the posterior side, the capsule is thin and mainly composed of transverse fibres. A few of these fibres stretch across the olecranon fossa without attaching to it and form a transverse band with a free upper border. On the ulnar side, the capsule reaches down to the posterior part of the annular ligament. The posterior capsule is attached to the triceps tendon which prevents the sheathing from being pinched during extension.^[8]

Synovial membrane [edit]

The synovial membrane of the elbow joint is very extensive. On the humerus, information technology extends upward from the articular margins and covers the coronoid and radial fossae anteriorly and the olecranon fossa posteriorly. Distally, it is prolonged down to the neck of the radius and the superior radioulnar articulation. It is supported by the quadrate ligament below the annular ligament where it likewise forms a fold which gives the caput of the radius liberty of move.^[8]

Several synovial folds project into the recesses of the joint.^[eight] These folds or plicae are remnants of normal embryonic development and can be categorized as either inductive (anterior humeral recess) or posterior (olecranon recess).^[9] A crescent-shaped fold is unremarkably present betwixt the head of the radius and the capitulum of the humerus.^[viii]

On the humerus there are extrasynovial fat pads next to the iii articular fossae. These pads fill the radial and coronoid fossa anteriorly during extension, and the olecranon fossa posteriorly during flexion. They are displaced when the fossae are occupied by the bony projections of the ulna and radius.^[eight]

Ligaments [edit]

Left elbow-joint
Left: anterior and ulnar collateral ligaments
Right: posterior and radial collateral ligaments

The elbow, like other joints, has ligaments on either side. These are triangular bands which alloy with the articulation capsule. They are positioned so that they e'er lie beyond the transverse joint axis and are, therefore, e'er relatively tense and impose strict limitations on abduction, adduction, and axial rotation at the elbow.^[8]

The ulnar collateral ligament has its apex on the medial epicondyle. Its anterior ring stretches from the anterior side of the medial epicondyle to the medial border of the coronoid process, while the posterior band stretches from posterior side of the medial epicondyle to the medial side of the olecranon. These ii bands are separated by a thinner intermediate part and their distal attachments are united by a transverse band below which the synovial membrane protrudes during joint movements. The anterior ring is closely associated with the tendon of the superficial flexor muscles of the forearm, fifty-fifty being the origin of flexor digitorum superficialis. The ulnar nerve crosses the intermediate part as it enters the forearm.^[8]

The radial collateral ligament is attached to the lateral epicondyle below the common extensor tendon. Less distinct than the ulnar collateral ligament, this ligament blends with the annular ligament of the radius and its margins are attached virtually the radial notch of the ulna.^[eight]

Muscles [edit]

Flexion [edit]

There are three main flexor muscles at the elbow:^[10]

• Brachialis acts exclusively as an elbow flexor and is 1 of the few muscles in the man body with a single function. It originates low on the anterior side of the humerus and is inserted into the tuberosity of the ulna.
• Brachioradialis acts essentially as an elbow flexor but also supinates during farthermost pronation and pronates during extreme supination. It originates at the lateral supracondylar ridge distally on the humerus and is inserted distally on the radius at the styloid process.
• Biceps brachii is the main elbow flexor simply, every bit a biarticular muscle, also plays important secondary roles as a stabiliser at the shoulder and equally a supinator. Information technology originates on the scapula with two tendons: That of the long head on the supraglenoid tubercle just above the shoulder joint and that of the short head on the coracoid process at the elevation of the scapula. Its primary insertion is at the radial tuberosity on the radius.

Brachialis is the main muscle used when the elbow is flexed slowly. During rapid and forceful flexion all iii muscles are brought into activeness assisted by the superficial forearm flexors originating at the medial side of the elbow.^[eleven] The efficiency of the flexor muscles increases dramatically as the elbow is brought into midflexion (flexed 90°) — biceps reaches its angle of maximum efficiency at fourscore–90° and brachialis at 100–110°.^[10]

Agile flexion is limited to 145° by the contact between the inductive muscles of the upper arm and forearm, more and then because they are hardened by contraction during flexion. Passive flexion (forearm is pushed against the upper arm with flexors relaxed) is express to 160° by the bony projections on the radius and ulna equally they reach to shallow depressions on the humerus; i.eastward. the head of radius existence pressed confronting the radial fossa and the coronoid procedure being pressed against the coronoid fossa. Passive flexion is further express by tension in the posterior capsular ligament and in triceps brachii.^[12]

A small accompaniment muscle, and then called epitrochleoanconeus muscle, may exist institute on the medial aspect of the elbow running from the medial epicondyle to the olecranon.^[13]

Extension [edit]

Elbow extension is simply bringing the forearm dorsum to anatomical position.^[11] This activity is performed by triceps brachii with a negligible assistance from anconeus. Triceps originates with 2 heads posteriorly on the humerus and with its long head on the scapula only below the shoulder joint. Information technology is inserted posteriorly on the olecranon.^[10]

Triceps is maximally efficient with the elbow flexed 20–30°. As the angle of flexion increases, the position of the olecranon approaches the primary axis of the humerus which decreases muscle efficiency. In full flexion, yet, the triceps tendon is "rolled upward" on the olecranon equally on a pulley which compensates for the loss of efficiency. Because triceps' long head is biarticular (acts on two joints), its efficiency is also dependent on the position of the shoulder.^[10]

Extension is limited by the olecranon reaching the olecranon fossa, tension in the anterior ligament, and resistance in flexor muscles. Forced extension results in a rupture in ane of the limiting structures: olecranon fracture, torn capsule and ligaments, and, though the muscles are unremarkably left unaffected, a bruised brachial artery.^[12]

Blood supply [edit]

The anastomosis and deep veins around the elbow-joint

The arteries supplying the joint are derived from an extensive circulatory anastomosis between the brachial artery and its terminal branches. The superior and inferior ulnar collateral branches of the brachial artery and the radial and middle collateral branches of the profunda brachii artery descend from above to reconnect on the articulation capsule, where they also connect with the inductive and posterior ulnar recurrent branches of the ulnar avenue; the radial recurrent branch of the radial artery; and the interosseous recurrent branch of the common interosseous artery.^[14]

The claret is brought back by vessels from the radial, ulnar, and brachial veins. At that place are ii sets of lymphatic nodes at the elbow, normally located higher up the medial epicondyle — the deep and superficial cubital nodes (too called epitrochlear nodes). The lymphatic drainage at the elbow is through the deep nodes at the bifurcation of the brachial artery, the superficial nodes bleed the forearm and the ulnar side of the hand. The efferent lymph vessels from the elbow proceed to the lateral group of axillary lymph nodes.^{[14] [fifteen]}

Nervus supply [edit]

The elbow is innervated anteriorly past branches from the musculocutaneous, median, and radial nerve, and posteriorly from the ulnar nerve and the branch of the radial nerve to anconeus.^[xiv]

Development [edit]

The elbow undergoes dynamic development of ossification centers through infancy and adolescence, with the lodge of both the appearance and fusion of the apophyseal growth centers beingness crucial in cess of the pediatric elbow on radiograph, in order to distinguish a traumatic fracture or apophyseal separation from normal development. The order of appearance can be understood by the mnemonic CRITOE, referring to the capitellum, radial caput, internal epicondyle, trochlea, olecranon, and external epicondyle at ages one, 3, 5, 7, 9 and xi years. These apophyseal centers then fuse during adolescence, with the internal epicondyle and olecranon fusing final. The ages of fusion are more variable than ossification, only normally occur at 13, 15, 17, 13, 16 and 13 years, respectively.^[16] In addition, the presence of a joint effusion can be inferenced by the presence of the fat pad sign, a structure that is normally physiologically nowadays, just pathologic when elevated by fluid, and always pathologic when posterior.^[17]

Function [edit]

The function of the elbow joint is to extend and flex the arm grasp and reach for objects.^[18] The range of move in the elbow is from 0 degrees of elbow extension to 150 degrees of elbow flexion.^[nineteen] Muscles contributing to part are all flexion (biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis) and extension muscles (triceps and anconeus).

In humans, the chief chore of the elbow is to properly place the hand in space by shortening and lengthening the upper limb. While the superior radioulnar articulation shares joint sheathing with the elbow joint, information technology plays no functional part at the elbow.^[7]

With the elbow extended, the long axis of the humerus and that of the ulna coincide. At the same time, the articular surfaces on both bones are located in front of those axes and deviate from them at an bending of 45°. Additionally, the forearm muscles that originate at the elbow are grouped at the sides of the joint in order non to interfere with its movement. The wide angle of flexion at the elbow made possible by this arrangement — almost 180° — allows the bones to exist brought almost in parallel to each other.^[7]

Carrying angle [edit]

Normal radiograph; right pic of the straightened arm shows the carrying angle of the elbow

When the arm is extended, with the palm facing forward or up, the basic of the upper arm (humerus) and forearm (radius and ulna) are non perfectly aligned. The departure from a directly line occurs in the direction of the pollex, and is referred to as the "carrying angle" (visible in the right half of the movie, right).

The conveying angle permits the arm to be swung without contacting the hips. Women on average take smaller shoulders and wider hips than men, which tends to produce a larger carrying angle (i.e., larger divergence from a direct line than that in men). There is, however, extensive overlap in the carrying angle between individual men and women, and a sex-bias has not been consistently observed in scientific studies.^[xx] This could nevertheless be attributed to the very small sample sizes in those cited before studies.^{[ commendation needed ]}

The angle is greater in the dominant limb than the not-ascendant limb of both sexes,^[21] suggesting that natural forces acting on the elbow modify the conveying angle. Developmental,^[22] aging and possibly racial influences add further to the variability of this parameter.

Pathology [edit]

Left: Lateral X ray of a dislocated right elbow
Right: AP Ten ray of a confused right elbow

The types of disease most commonly seen at the elbow are due to injury.

Tendonitis [edit]

Two of the most common injuries at the elbow are overuse injuries: tennis elbow and golfer's elbow. Golfer's elbow involves the tendon of the common flexor origin which originates at the medial epicondyle of the humerus (the "within" of the elbow). Tennis elbow is the equivalent injury, but at the common extensor origin (the lateral epicondyle of the humerus).

Fractures [edit]

There are iii bones at the elbow joint, and whatever combination of these bones may exist involved in a fracture of the elbow. Patients who are able to fully extend their arm at the elbow are unlikely to have a fracture (98% certainty) and an X-ray is non required as long as an olecranon fracture is ruled out.^[23] Astute fractures may not be easily visible on X-ray.^{[ citation needed ]}

Dislocation [edit]

X-ray of ventral dislocation of the radial caput. In that location is calcification of annular ligament, which tin can be seen as early as 2 weeks later on injury.^[24]

Elbow dislocations constitute 10% to 25% of all injuries to the elbow. The elbow is 1 of the most commonly confused joints in the trunk, with an average annual incidence of acute dislocation of 6 per 100,000 persons.^[25] Among injuries to the upper extremity, dislocation of the elbow is second only to a dislocated shoulder. A full dislocation of the elbow will require expert medical attention to re-align, and recovery tin can take approximately 8–14 weeks.

Infection [edit]

Infection of the elbow joint (septic arthritis) is uncommon. It may occur spontaneously, but may also occur in relation to surgery or infection elsewhere in the trunk (for case, endocarditis).^{[ commendation needed ]}

Arthritis [edit]

Elbow arthritis is usually seen in individuals with rheumatoid arthritis or after fractures that involve the articulation itself. When the damage to the joint is astringent, fascial arthroplasty or elbow articulation replacement may exist considered.^[26]

Bursitis [edit]

Olecranon bursitis, tenderness, warmth, swelling, pain in both flexion and extension-in chronic case cracking flexion-is extremely painful.

Elbow pain [edit]

Elbow pain occurs when the tenderness of the tissues in the elbow become inflamed. Frequent practise of the inflamed elbow volition assist with healing.

Clinical significance [edit]

Elbow pain tin occur for a multitude of reasons, including injury, disease, and other weather. Mutual atmospheric condition include tennis elbow, golfer's elbow, distal radioulnar articulation rheumatoid arthritis, and cubital tunnel syndrome.

Lawn tennis elbow [edit]

Lawn tennis elbow is a very common type of overuse injury. It can occur both from chronic repetitive motions of the manus and forearm, and from trauma to the same areas. These repetitions can injure the tendons that connect the extensor supinator muscles (which rotate and extend the forearm) to the olecranon process (likewise known every bit "the elbow"). Hurting occurs, oft radiating from the lateral forearm. Weakness, numbness, and stiffness are also very common, along with tenderness upon bear upon.^[27] A non-invasive treatment for pain direction is residue. If achieving rest is an issue, a wrist brace can likewise be worn. This keeps the wrist in flexion, thereby relieving the extensor muscles and allowing rest. Water ice, rut, ultrasound, steroid injections, and compression can also help alleviate pain. Afterwards the hurting has been reduced, exercise therapy is important to prevent injury in the time to come. Exercises should be low velocity, and weight should increment progressively.^[28] Stretching the flexors and extensors is helpful, as are strengthening exercises. Massage can likewise exist useful, focusing on the extensor trigger points.^[29]

Golfer's elbow [edit]

Golfer's elbow is very similar to tennis elbow, but less common. It is caused by overuse and repetitive motions like a golf swing. It can also be acquired past trauma. Wrist flexion and pronation (rotating of the forearm) causes irritation to the tendons near the medial epicondyle of the elbow.^[30] It can cause pain, stiffness, loss of awareness, and weakness radiating from the inside of the elbow to the fingers. Rest is the primary intervention for this injury. Ice, hurting medication, steroid injections, strengthening exercises, and fugitive whatever aggravating activities can too assist. Surgery is a concluding resort, and rarely used. Exercises should focus on strengthening and stretching the forearm, and utilizing proper form when performing movements.^[31]

Rheumatoid arthritis [edit]

Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic disease that affects joints. It is very mutual in the wrist, and is about common at the radioulnar joint. It results in pain, stiffness, and deformities. There are many different treatments for rheumatoid arthritis, and in that location is no ane consensus for which methods are all-time. Most common treatments include wrist splints, surgery, physical and occupational therapy, and antirheumatic medication.^[32]

Cubital tunnel syndrome [edit]

Cubital tunnel syndrome, more commonly known equally ulnar neuropathy, occurs when the ulnar nerve is irritated and becomes inflamed. This tin can often happen where the ulnar nervus is almost superficial, at the elbow. The ulnar nerve passes over the elbow, at the expanse known as the "funny bone". Irritation can occur due to constant, repeated stress and force per unit area at this area, or from a trauma. It can also occur due to os deformities, and frequently from sports.^[33] Symptoms include tingling, numbness, and weakness, along with pain. First line pain management techniques include the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory oral medicines. These help to reduce inflammation, force per unit area, and irritation of the nerve and effectually the nerve. Other simple fixes include learning more ergonomically friendly habits that tin assistance forbid nerve impingement and irritation in the time to come. Protective equipment can also be very helpful. Examples of this include a protective elbow pad, and an arm splint. More than serious cases often involve surgery, in which the nerve or the surrounding tissue is moved to relieve the pressure. Recovery from surgery can take awhile, just the prognosis is ofttimes a practiced ane. Recovery oftentimes includes movement restrictions, and range of motion activities, and can last a few months (cubital and radial tunnel syndrome, 2).

Guild and culture [edit]

The at present obsolete length unit ell relates closely to the elbow. This becomes especially visible when considering the Germanic origins of both words, Elle (ell, defined equally the length of a male person forearm from elbow to fingertips) and Ellbogen (elbow). It is unknown when or why the 2nd "l" was dropped from English usage of the word.^{[ citation needed ]} The ell as in the English language measure could besides be taken to come from the alphabetic character L, being bent at correct angles, as an elbow.^[34] The ell every bit a mensurate was taken as half-dozen handbreadths; iii to the elbow and three from the elbow to the shoulder.^[35] Another measure was the cubit (from cubital). This was taken to be the length of a homo'south arm from the elbow to the end of the eye finger.^[36]

Other primates [edit]

Though the elbow is similarly adjusted for stability through a wide range of pronation-supination and flexion-extension in all apes, there are some minor difference. In arboreal apes such as orangutans, the large forearm muscles originating on the epicondyles of the humerus generate significant transverse forces on the elbow joint. The structure to resist these forces is a pronounced keel on the trochlear notch on the ulna, which is more flattened in, for instance, humans and gorillas. In knuckle-walkers, on the other hand, the elbow has to deal with large vertical loads passing through extended forearms and the joint is therefore more than expanded to provide larger articular surfaces perpendicular to those forces.^[37]

Derived traits in catarrhini (apes and Erstwhile World monkeys) elbows include the loss of the entepicondylar foramen (a hole in the distal humerus), a not-translatory (rotation-merely) humeroulnar joint, and a more than robust ulna with a shortened trochlear notch.^[38]

The proximal radioulnar joint is similarly derived in higher primates in the location and shape of the radial notch on the ulna; the archaic form being represented by New World monkeys, such as the howler monkey, and by fossil catarrhines, such as Aegyptopithecus. In these taxa, the oval head of the radius lies in forepart of the ulnar shaft so that the former overlaps the latter by half its width. With this forearm configuration, the ulna supports the radius and maximum stability is achieved when the forearm is fully pronated.^[38]

Notes [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} "MeSH Browser". meshb.nlm.nih.gov . Retrieved viii January 2022.
2. ^ "MeSH Browser". meshb.nlm.nih.gov . Retrieved 8 January 2022.
3. ^ Kapandji 1982, pp. 74–7
4. ^ Palastanga & Soames 2012, p. 138
5. ^ Ross & Lamperti 2006, p. 240
6. ^ Kapandji 1982, p. 84
7. ^ ^{a b c} Palastanga & Soames 2012, pp. 127–8
8. ^ ^{a b c d due east f k h i j} Palastanga & Soames 2012, pp. 131–2
9. ^ Awaya et al. 2001
10. ^ ^{a b c d} Kapandji 1982, pp. 88–91
11. ^ ^{a b} Palastanga & Soames 2012, p. 136
12. ^ ^{a b} Kapandji 1982, p. 86
13. ^ Gervasio, Olga; Zaccone, Claudio (2008). "Surgical Arroyo to Ulnar Nerve Compression at the Elbow Caused by the Epitrochleoanconeus Muscle and a Prominent Medial Head of the Triceps". Operative Neurosurgery. 62 (suppl_1): 186–193. doi:10.1227/01.neu.0000317392.29551.aa. ISSN 2332-4252. PMID 18424985. S2CID 22925073.
14. ^ ^{a b c} Palastanga & Soames 2012, p. 133
15. ^ "Cubital nodes". Inner Body. Retrieved xxx June 2012.
16. ^ Soma, DB (March 2016). "Opening the Black Box: Evaluating the Pediatric Athlete With Elbow Pain". PM&R. eight (3 Suppl): S101-12. doi:10.1016/j.pmrj.2016.01.002. PMID 26972259. S2CID 30934706.
17. ^ Lee, YJ; Han, D; Koh, YH; Zo, JH; Kim, SH; Kim, DK; Lee, JS; Moon, HJ; Kim, JS; Chun, EJ; Youn, BJ; Lee, CH; Kim, SS (February 2008). "Adult canvass sign: radiographic and computed tomographic features". Acta Radiologica. 49 (1): 37–40. doi:ten.1080/02841850701675677. PMID 18210313. S2CID 2031763.
18. ^ Dimon, T. (2011). The Body of Motion: its Evolution and Design (pp. 39-42). Berkeley, CA: N Atlantic Books.
19. ^ Thomas, B. P.; Sreekanth, R. (2012). "Distal radioulnar joint injuries". Indian Journal of Orthopaedics. 46 (five): 493–504. doi:10.4103/0019-5413.101031. PMC3491781. PMID 23162140.
20. ^ Steel & Tomlinson 1958, pp. 315–7; Van Roy et al. 2005, pp. 1645–56; Zampagni et al. 2008, p. 370
21. ^ Paraskevas et al. 2004, pp. 19–23; Yilmaz et al. 2005, pp. 1360–3
22. ^ Tukenmez et al. 2004, pp. 274–6
23. ^ Appelboam et al. 2008
24. ^ Earwaker J (1992). "Posttraumatic calcification of the annular ligament of the radius". Skeletal Radiol. 21 (3): 149–54. doi:10.1007/BF00242127. PMID 1604339. S2CID 43615869.
25. ^ Blakeney 2010
26. ^ Matsen 2012
27. ^ Speed, C., Hazleman, B., & Dalton, Southward. (2006). Fast Facts : Soft Tissue Disorders (2nd Edition). Abingdon, Oxford, GBR: Health Press Limited. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com
28. ^ MacAuley, D., & Best, T. (Eds.). (2008). Evidence-Based Sports Medicine. Chichester, GBR: John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved from http://world wide web.ebrary.com
29. ^ Thomson, B. (1 January 2015). (5) Tennis Elbow Treatment Past Trigger Point Massage. Retrieved February 17, 2015, from http://www.easyvigour.net.nz/fitness/hOBP5_TriggerPoint_Tennis_Elbow.htm
30. ^ Dhami, S., & Sheikh, A. (2002). At A Glance - Medial Epicondylitis (Golfer'due south Elbow). Factiva.
31. ^ Golfer's elbow. (9 Oct 2012). Retrieved March fourteen, 2015, from http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-weather/golfers-elbow/basics/prevention/con-20027964
32. ^ Lee, S., & Hausman, Yard. (2005). Management of the Distal Radioulnar Joint in Rheumatoid Arthritis. Hand Clinics, (21), 577-589.
33. ^ Cubital and Radial Tunnel Syndrome: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment. (29 September 2014). Retrieved February 17, 2015, from http://www.webmd.com/hurting-management/cubital-radial-tunnel-syndrome
34. ^ O.D.E>2d edition 2005
35. ^ O.D.Due east. 2nd edition 2005,
36. ^ O.D.E. 2d edition 2005
37. ^ Drapeau 2008, Abstract
38. ^ ^{a b} Richmond et al. 1998, Discussion, p. 267

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